The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1275 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2018/12/28 Category Literature Essay Type Book review Level High school Tags: Feminism Essay The Yellow Wallpaper Essay Did you like this example? The yellow wallpaper is a feminist story whose author is Charcollete Perkins Gilman. The story explores the basic issues that were faced by women in the society, their public perception of the mental illness which was connected to hysteria and feminism in the early 19th century in the United States. The theme of the story was a feminist which was due to protagonist struggle contrary to the male-centric thinking and society norms. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman" essay for you Create order Concerning the feminist story is how depression which was suffered by women was being treated and dealt with by the society and the physicians. John who is the husband of the narrator is a physician and he tries to treat her wife from an anxious condition where the process of the healing leads to complete breakdown. In his treatment activities, john prescribed it as arest cure treatment which is given to protagonist. John tries to advise her wife to abstain from the physical activities and creative stimulation. In this concern women like the narrator are treated as a subordinate role where they are not allowed to be involved in reading, writing and seeing their young ones. The only thing they are allowed to do is to sleep and breathe good air in the United States. The women were not in a position or had no ability to make their own decisions in the society. Charcollate Perkins Gilman has been involved in the story where he has been struggling against the women depression and the men dominance in the society which was experienced by the womens in an early 19th century. The setting of the story shows the inferiority of the women in the society (Gilman P.688). This paper will show how women suffered inferiority in the early 19th century in the United States. At the beginning of the story, women are considered as inferior to men. Johns wife who is referred to as protagonist is inferior to her husband john the physician. John as a physician dictates orders to his wife where he orders her not to be involved in any activity that involves decision making and the stimulation of mind with the argument that it will lead to mental problems.Women cannot read or write, they cannot work and the only thing they can do is to sleep and breathe the air in the state. The narrator is inferior to john where she has low self-esteem and has no confidence in herself. The relationship between women and their husband is not equal as it should be in the marriage sense. As per the 19th-century women were supposed to perform their responsibilities as the wives. Moreover, women were unable to adhere to that where it made society through John to take a move that will enhance women to behave like the wives by advocating for the cure of their depression or hysteria disease (Vidhya 260). Where women were said not to do anything involving physical activity and mental stimulation. The society treated women as inferior where they were treated as children relying on the guide of their husbands. They relied on their husbands the way children would rely on their parents depending on their thoughts and moves. Through such actions, the personality of the women was eroded making women inferior in the society. In the story setting, John represents society and narrator or protagonist represents women in the society. Women in the 19th century were supposed to be submissive to their husbands (Stiles 280).They suffered from depression and anxiety which is characterized by hysteria. The narrator was supposed to be submissive to the john. She was, by all means, trying to satisfy her spouse and assuming her protagonist as a mother and wife. Women struggled to meet their husband inmost needs of the inventiveness. You see, he does not believe I am sick! And what can one do? If a physician of high standing, and ones own husband, assures friends and relatives that there is really nothing the matter with one but temporary nervous depression-a slight hysterical tendency-what is one to do?(Gilman P.687). The women are treated as inferior as narrator argues thatJohn sees himself as wise than her wife. She argues that she was not noticed when she said she was sick. John claimed she was suffering from the hysteria and she had to avoid activities that would involve more creativity and decision making among th e women. When women started rebelling against their husbands like in case of the john and narrator in the yellow paper story, the physicians like John were assuming that women were sick. Where were said to be suffering from the mental illness and anxiety a disease referred to as hysteria. Hysteria was characterized by the anxiety and depression and was associated with females in the society. Women infected by the madness were associated with the emotional symptoms including; emotional dependency, seductive behaviors, intolerance depressions, and irritability. The physicians like John had a belief that women were weak than men and would not handle high amounts of the mental and physical activity. Physicians who were the men and had dominance were opposed to women receiving an education where they believed that education will adversely and permanently affect the health of the women. The hysteria diseases was a kind of making women inferior so that they may continue being submissive to men in the society (Matthews 73). The setting of the society in the United States in the early 19th century portrayed men as superior as compared to the women. Men dominated everything in the society. Lastly, according to the author, women in the America in the early 19th century were being forced to completely depend on the men. In that sense, everything they owned belonged to men which included; their children, possessions, and earnings. This led to lowering of the women status in the society. The women were considered different from the men considering their different purposes they had in the society. Women were treated as mothers and homemakers whereas men were treated as intellectuals who were involved in working and they depended on the women to maintain their comfort and changing aspects of the family and homes. Women in the United States were held by religious values which portrayed them as inferior. They were said to have religious virtues of being submissive, piety and domesticity in nature (Breuer 255) .These virtues made men in the society to be dominant where women were inferior in the society. To conclude, the setting of the storythe yellow paper and the society in the America in early 19th century, portrayed woman as inferior. Women were said to be suffering from the mental illness which was associated only with the women. After the physician diagnosis, they were said to be suffering from the hysteria. In order for women to avoid that mental illness, they were said not to be involved in the activities involving decision making and creativity in the society. They were not allowed to learn and make their own decision as they depended totally on men. Religious values of being submissive and domesticity which made women remain inferior in the society. References Breur, Josef. Freud, Sigmund.The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Macmillan, 1955. Print. Ed. Dino Franco Felluga. Extension of Romanticism and Victorianism on the Net. Web. Gilman, Charlotte P.? The Yellow Wallpaper. London: Virago, 1973. Print. Matthews, Jean.The Rise of the New Woman. The Rise of the New Woman: The Womens Movement in America, 1875â€Å"1930. Ed. Ivan R. Dee. pp. 72-74. Print. Stiles, Anne.The Rest Cure, 1873-1925. Branch: Britain, Representation and Nineteenth- Century History. Vidhya, S.Hysteria: Meaning, Causes and Symptoms. Home-cure.net, 6. Sept. 2011. Web. 28. Oct. 2017.

Language Development How Two Gorillas Learned to Talk...

Language development is a very special process. There are three steps in the development of the human language. There is phonological development, semantic development, and finally grammar development. I will explain to you what these steps consist of and how two gorillas learned language and who taught them. Phonological development is one of the first types of human language development. According to the text Essentials of Psychology. Phonological Development is the development of the ability to produce recognizable speech.(pg.262) When a baby is first born he or she babbles. When the baby gets older the babbling narrows and consists mainly of sound used in the language. When the baby gets to this step, the babys†¦show more content†¦They also learn to use question words, which allows them to ask for information specific ways. When children increase their vocabulary , they often demonstrate several errors. Accordingly to the text Essentials of Psychology one error is over extensions that is a tendency to extend the meaning of a word beyond it?s limiting the meaning of word more than appropriate. Grammar development is the last of the development stages and poses little problem for humans to development. Every language has grammar, a set of rules dictating how words can be used in a sentences. A child must understand these rules as well and know how to say the words correctly. When children get to the age of two, they talk in two word sentences and use a pattern out textbook calls a telegraphic speech. Children?s grasp of grammar continues to increase as they move to longer sentences. When the children get older they add inflection words to their vocabulary. In the English language this includes the letter ?s? to indicate more than one object and endings that change the tense of a verb. From this, children increase their language and start to link two or more ideas in the phrase. They also generally learn to understand, and use sentences in which ideas are implied or understood rather than directly said. After hearing all the information about human languageShow MoreRelatedRole of Media in Tourism9761 Words   |  40 Pagestourism   industry;   (   2)   to   present   an   overview   of   the   current   challenges   of   tourism   policy   issues   and   options   in   Africa   and   how   they   can   be   slowed,   halted   and   reversed      by   media   communications   campaigns   process;   (3)   to   explain   the   specific   pattern   of   media   effects   by   the   new   technologies   on   the   development   of   culture   in   the   African   countries;   and   (4)   to   discuss   appropriate   media   communications   technology   options      for      promoting  Read More Organic Evolution Essay3270 Words   |  14 Pageswhen we really are. 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Manpower Planning Models-Free-Samples for Students-Myassignment

Question: Discuss about the International Human Resource Management. Answer: Introduction: International human resource management is concerned with the issues of human resource management that are conducted in many locations other than the home country headquarters. The international human resource management is concerned with the relationships between the activities of human resource management. Human Resource Management is an important element for every organization. In this report the country which is chosen is Australia. Every country has different religion, gender, languages and activities. In this report the emphasis is given on the team member to acquire the knowledge and information of the country and also the climate condition to assist them to perform well in the organization. Organization structure is considered as allocating the responsibilities to the employees of different departments. It is very important part for every organization because if the organization structure is wrong it will delay the success of the business. It helps the organization to maximize the productivity of the organization and also it enhances the relationship between the functions of the organization. In Australia matrix structure is used and it will be most suitable structure for the company to enhance the goodwill in the market. In this each person is assigned with the specific role in the organization and in this person is free and can take responsibility to perform activities in effective manner. In Singapore it consists of the head manager then under that are the directors of the company and under that are the executives who take care of the subordinates and give guidance to them in their work. Lets consider the hofstede cultural dimension is a theory which is a framework f or cross cultural communication. It gives emphasis on the culture of the society on its members and also how the value is related with the behavior. The power distance is one of the part in which the main emphasis on the inequality which exist and which is accepted by the people with and without power In Singapore the power distance is high as the company have the strong hierarchies and there is also large gaps in compensation and authority (Hofstede, 2008). The staff answers all the questions which are related with the problem to the top management and as compared to Australia where company is establishing in that the power distance is low because as there are many employees who are going from Singapore to assist other employees or to perform their operations in the company so in that case the supervisors and employees are same. They take the decision together and many people are involved in the decision making process. Now next is individualism concerned with the strength to the p eople in the organization. In Singapore there is low individualism people have strong group cohesion and people of the organization give respect to the others members of the group and also take the responsibility for each other well being And in Australia there is high individualism as the connections are not proper and lose and also there is lack of interpersonal and there is less sharing of responsibility beyond family. In Australia there are different culture and norms which the employees or the staff of the organization has to follow. Their lifestyle and living standard is very different from Singapore. Also the language is different which should be given more focus because communication is only the thing by which the organization can achieve its goals and objectives in effective manner (Czarniawska, 2009). Next is masculinity which gives focus to the values and traditional of male and female. In Australia it is seen that both men and women work together in many professions and it is seen the women can work hard for professional success and also they have achieved success and in Singapore it is seen that men are tough enough to provide the services and also in providing assistance . In Singapore the masculine score is of 95 whereas in Australia the score is low 6. According to hofstede in Singapore the success can be achieved if male employee led the team and has strong power to manage a team and in Australia the success can be achieved if the aim is for a team that is balanced in skills rather than gender. Next is uncertainty it refers to the anxiety which society members feel at the time of unknown situations. If it is high they try to avoid the situations and if it is low it shows that the society enjoy the differences which occur in values. Hofstede cultural dimensions discuss that if the project is discussed with the people of Australia then the investigation should be made by discussing different options which are related to risk plans (Pugh, Hickson , Hinings, 2010).The next is long term orientation in which short term traditions and values are considered. If the countries have the high core of long term orientation it means that it is delivering on social obligations and it avoids loss of face. According to Hofstede people in Singapore have low long term orientation score. Staffing Process: In this process many steps are involved Estimating manpower requirements: The manpower requirement is accessed at the time of starting the work. The manpower requirement is determined by taking two things in consideration. First is type of employees and second is number of employees. It consists of job requirement, desired qualification and also the relationship which exist between the different jobs. The manpower planning consists of two techniques the first is workload analysis and second is workforce analysis. The workload analysis helps to access the requirement of the human resource necessary for the performance of jobs and to achieve the objectives of the organization. It ensures that there is no burden and also the resources are used in effective and efficient manner. Workforce analysis is concerned about the existing staff of the organization. It is also focusing on whether the organization is understaffed, overstaffed or optimally staffed (Murphy Cleveland, 2011). Recruitment: It finds and motivates the employees who are capable to perform the job in effective and in efficient manner. The employees are concerned about particular job in the organization. There are many activities which are involved in the recruitment. It includes activities such as determining the sources of supply, Evaluation of validity of these sources, choosing the most suitable source and also inviting the applications from the candidates who are willing to do the job (Schlechty Vance, 2011) Selection: Under this the candidate who possesses the desired qualification is selected for conducting task in the organization. The ability and nature of work should be taken into consideration. It should focus on appointing right man which should be selected for the right job. It will give enhancement in quality, quantity, time and cost. The selection process consist of many steps like preliminary screening, selection test, employment interview, reference check, selection decision, Medical examination, Job offer, Contract of employment. The selection should be based on the requirement of manpower in the organization. Placement and orientation: It involves giving the job according to the ability and also by placing right man at right place. Orientation means introducing the employee with the rules and policies. Its main aim is to induce the employees in the organization to work smoothly. Training and development: After that the employees should be given training according to the assigned duty. It gives benefit to both employees and to the organization. It increases the skills and ability of the employee to enhancement the performance. Performance appraisal: In this the performance is compared and also the work is assigned to them. If the result or the performance is not satisfactory than the training is given to the employee again and again on daily basis (Murphy Cleveland, 2009). Promotion: is a method by which the employees get good salary, status, position. The higher post is given to the employees at the time of promotion. Compensation: The employee should get fair wages and incentives according to the performance. This can happen by four ways through retirement, termination and death. The staffing strategy which should be used in recruiting the candidates should be conducting recruitment from outside. It will give chance to access the candidate and will provide sufficient option to select the candidates. The selection tool which should be used and which will be beneficial for the organization are a) Interview: It is a reliable source and it is used widely at the time of selecting a candidate. b) Skills Testing: It helps in accessing the skills which the candidate possesses. c) Reference check: The reference check should be conducted at the time of selecting the candidate. It plays a great role in choosing the candidate who is capable enough to perform the task. On the training and development Process: The training to the employees of Singapore will be given according to the working pattern of the Australia. The process of training and development consist of training needs analysis which can give assistance to the employees to face the environment of Australia and the workers or employees can work in effective manner (Noe, 2008).The employees who are going to Australia to conduct their operation they should be given proper training which can consist of coaching in which the training is given to employees and their doubts are cleared so that they can perform their task in effective and in efficient manner. The another training which is important for the employees is job instruction technology training in which the instructions is given to the employees to handle all the technology which proper care and also it enhances the level of knowledge of the employee and give them assistance to work in proper way. The next can be mentoring in which the employees are assigned under each mentor which helps them to solve all the queries and problem of the employees. The training is very important for the employees then only then can achieve the objective of the organization and can sustain in different climate. Proper training of language is also given to them so that customers dont face any problem and also the employees can serve the customer in effective manner. Cultural training is also important because if there is lack in understanding the culture it can harm to achieve the goals and objectives of the firm. Before moving the employees to the new place it is essential to train the employee on managing stress, culture shock and also homesickness (Hollenbeck, Gerhart, Wright, 2003). Remuneration package of the international assignees it can consist of the salary but it also contain the extra benefits such as accommodation, car, telephone, meals which the company gives to the employees. If the company have good remuneration package it attracts and encourage right employees to join the organization. Compensation package include sum direct benefits which are salary, bonus, commission and also indirect benefits include insurance, pension plans that the employer gives to the employees working in the organization. There are different approaches of compensation package. Balance sheet approach is the oldest approach and it was designed after the World War II as there is no gain no loss method of compensating employees who are working overseas (Newman Milkovich,2002). The concept behind this is that the employer can sustain their standard of living and also it gives equal purchasing power which help to keep the home lifestyle. When the parent company takes into consider ation the balance sheet approach then it is required to keep the compensation salaries in line with home country peers and not with the colleagues of host country. It also maintains internal equity with peers by taking consideration the home country. In this approach the expatriate is wholly responsible for the cost and expenses as compared with parent company by adding additional income to keep the employees satisfied. The next is destination based approach in which the organization brings the cost of compensating expatriates under control and also increases popular approach. This approach takes into consideration that what the competitors are paying and which is more important if it is compared with the employees in comparable jobs. This approach has many disadvantages (Grinold Marshall, 2006) .This approach is also successful in many ways as it has many candidates who are enhanced or is motivated to seek foreign posts and also it is concerned with the employees who are willing t o avail the benefits and allowances. It is seen that the organization can save at least 20% of the cost if balance sheet approach is taken into consideration. The next remuneration package can be salary negotiation in which there is influence of culture and in this the negotiation of salary is made. In Australia the position in the new or current company the employee starts the conversation by considering about the achievements and then discuss about salary. Next is cost of living adjustment in which difference is made between the current and new location which is given to the employees. It includes the size of the family and also the salary which is spending on the goods and services on annual basis. Next is housing allowance which is given to the employees if they are given opportunity to shift in other country. The rent is given by the company in form of compensation. The benefit of health insurance is also given to the employee. All the expense concerned with the health is cover ed under the insurance. Conclusion From the analysis which is made in this report it is seen that the company can achieved it goals and objectives in Australia if the employees are given proper training. It will also enhance the goodwill of the company also the compensation package which is given to international assignee should be sufficient and satisfies enough. Training helps the employees to enhance the knowledge and also helps to attain assistance from the top management. The training is very essential for the staff because in Australia there is different pattern of the people living and also the culture is different so it is essential to give training to the employees or staff so that they can achieve their target in effective manner. Also for recruiting employees proper method should be used so that efficient candidate can be selected which can enhance the profitability of the company. The company should use different techniques to train the employees because it not only groom the staff but also give knowledge to face the problems which are prevailing in the market. The company should adopt proper staffing process so that the company can achieve its goals and objectives efficiently and in effective manner. The organization should maintain proper organization structure so that is can be convenient for the staff or the employees to work in effective way and can enhance the profitability of the business. References: Czarniawska, B. (Ed.). (2009).A narrative approach to organization studies(Vol. 43). Sage Publications. Grinold, R. C., Marshall, K. T. (2006).Manpower planning models. New York: North-Holland. Hofstede, G. (2008). Cultural dimensions in management and planning.Asia Pacific journal of management,1(2), 81-99. Hollenbeck, J. R., Gerhart, B., Wright, P. M. (2003).Gaining a competitive advantage. Irwin: McGraw-Hill. Murphy, K. R., Cleveland, J. (2011).Understanding performance appraisal: Social, organizational, and goal-based perspectives. Sage. Murphy, K. R., Cleveland, J. N. (2009).Performance appraisal: An organizational perspective. Allyn Bacon. Newman, J. M., Milkovich, C. (2002).Compensation(Vol. 8). New York: McGraw-Hill. Noe, R. A. (2008). Employee training and development. Pugh, D. S., Hickson, D. J., Hinings, C. R.(2010). Dimensions of organization structure.Administrative science quarterly, 65-105. Schlechty, P. C., Vance, V. S. (2011). Recruitment, selection, and retention: The shape of the teaching force.The Elementary School Journal,83(4), 469-487.

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Impact of Employees Motivation on Organizational Effectiveness Essays

Impact of Employees Motivation on Organizational Effectiveness Essays Impact of Employees Motivation on Organizational Effectiveness Paper Impact of Employees Motivation on Organizational Effectiveness Paper A Review and Analysis of â€Å"Impact of Employees Motivation on Organizational Effectiveness† by Quratul-Ain Manzoor The following is a summary of an article called â€Å"Impact of Employees Motivation on Organizational Effectiveness†. It was written by Quratul-Ain Manzoor for publication in Business Management and Strategy. The author’s purpose was to identify the factors that influence employee motivation. He asks if there is a relationship between organizational effectiveness and employee motivation. The model for his study is based on the vast literature on this subject over the last 30 – 40 years. The author was motivated to find any linking factors between employee motivation and organizational effectiveness. What the literature informs Mr. Manzoor is that empowerment and recognition have positive effects on employee motivation. So these two central factors form the basis of his research and findings. Realizing that these two terms (â€Å"motivation† and â€Å"organizational effectiveness†) are the central part of his study, the author spends two sections of his article in defining and explaining these terms. Specifically, he cites many previous books and articles and comes up with definitions as others have used these terms. He comes up with a consensus of what these factors mean. This is the focus of his literature review. The author adds to the discussion his own views about these topics. First, he says that money is the fundamental inducement, and that no other incentive comes even close. It alone can motivate individuals towards higher performance. But in order to get to its goals organizations need a few individuals to provide leadership. Leadership, he says, is about getting things done the right way, and to do that you need people to follow you. That’s based on trust he says. It is empowerment that provides organizational members with the sense of belonging and pride in the organization. It doesn’t matter how automated an organization is; high productivity depends on the level of motivation. And the primary factor in proper motivation is leadership. Mr. Manzoor wants to know if there is any causality between the individual motivation and organizational effectiveness. Using his extensive study of the literature on this subject, he sets forth three hypotheses. But before he states his hypotheses, he sets forth his objectives and conceptual framework. He is very clear about the main objectives of his study. He wants to analyze the impact of emloyees’ motivations on organizational effectiveness. The â€Å"sub-objectives† of his study are: (1) to determine the factors that increase employees motivation and (2) to examine the relationship between employees motivation and organizational effectiveness. His conceptual framework is brief, but is as follows: â€Å"Employee Motivation is the independent variable and will be examined through two of its factors, recognition and empowerment. The dependent variable is organizational effectiveness. He now sets forth three hypotheses. Hypothesis 1 is that â€Å"There is an effect of recognizing employees’ work on their motivation to work. † Hypothesis 2 is that â€Å"There is an effect of empowering employees in tasks on their motivation to work. Finally, Hypothesis 3 states: â€Å"There is a relationship between employees’ motivation and organizational effectiveness. † Concerning the first hypothesis, his analysis of several empirical studies fully supports his first hypothesis that recognizes the employees will increase their motivation to accomplish tasks and execute responsibllities in the organization. As for the second hypothesis, the author’s study of the literature fully supports the hypothesis that empowering employees increases their motivation towards work. Finally, the third hypothesis is confirmed from the literature consisting of multiple empirical studies; namely that there exists a positive relationship between employee motivation and organizational effectiveness. What this article offers is an excellent review of recent literature on the subject of motivation and organizational effectiveness. The literature is vast, but most of it indicates a correlation between motivation and organizational effectiveness, just as Mr. Manzoor shows. But what surprised me in reading this article was that I didn’t notice any detailed discussion of his methodology. There was no statistical analysis. There was no survey research. In fact, the author was relying on the methodology, statistical analysis and survey research of other researchers he studied. In my other course work I’ve had to review the literature of academic journals, and this one is different from those because these areas are missing. In fact, Mr. Manzoor’s article is closer to textbooks than to a professional peer reviewed journal article. In most textbooks I’ve seen, a subject area is written about, whether it is management, biology, or history, or some other academic field. The authors of textbooks then review the latest journal articles (as well as important books) and summarize the most important ones – especially the ones that others have cited most frequently. So, in a sense that is what Mr. Manzoor has done. Only his article appeared in an academic journal. Moreover, it was made to look like an original research article, because it had a literature review, discussion of its â€Å"model† and had hypotheses. But the article did not uncover any new data. Mr. Manzoor supported his hypothesis by relying on the data collected by others. My other major criticism of the article is that I think the author is over-simplifying such concepts of motivation and organizational effectiveness. What is needed is more careful measurement of these concepts, and fortunately many of the authors Mr. Manzoor references do that. But I think Mr. Manzoor takes a too simplified approach. For example, when he says that money is the primary motivator and nothing else comes close, I have to disagree with him. When somebody goes to work for a think tank, or a charity organization, or the U. S. State Department, or the Olympic team, one doesn’t do it primarily for the money. How do I know this? Because there is little financial reward, comparatively speaking, in the organizations I just cited. So why do individuals go to work for the United Way or compete in the high jump on the Olympic team. The answers vary: for recognition for achievement, or to do the right thing, to name a few. They don’t do it for the financial reward. But in the world of work and business enterprise, people do it for the money, and for the additional recognition that come from a higher paying position in the organization. The discussion of organizational effectiveness is also over simplified. What makes Apple a better company than Dell or Hewlett Packard? The short answer is motivation and leadership. But what is it about the motivation of Apple’s employees and Apple’s leadership that makes that company out-perform its competition? Are Apple’s employees any more highly motivated, dedicated or driven to achieve than those at competing companies? I think we have only just begun to understand motivation, leadership and organizational effectiveness, and that scholars in the management sciences are far from satisfied that they fully understand those concepts. Only continued research will get to the core of what those c oncepts mean.

Contributions of functionalist approaches Essay Example

Contributions of functionalist approaches Essay Example Contributions of functionalist approaches Essay Contributions of functionalist approaches Essay Introduction The 1980s saw the birth of a figure of attacks to Translation Studies ( TS henceforth ) jointly termed functionalist, which brought about a paradigm displacement in the system. This essay examines the strengths and failings every bit good as the parts of these functionalist attacks to the field of TS. Structurally, the essay starts with a brief historical overview of the attacks to interlingual rendition before the coming of functionalist attacks. Then it discusses the major functionalist attacks, foregrounding their major predications and the unfavorable judgments against them, which will so be followed by a general sum-up of the assorted parts of the assorted strands of functionalism. TRANSLATION STUDIES BEFORE FUNCTIONALISM Over the old ages, bookmans have approached the subject of Translation Studies from assorted angles mostly depending on the dominant doctrine of the clip and/or implicit in constructs of the nature of interlingual rendition and how the translated text will be used ( Schaeffner 2001: c5 ) . However, one quandary that has prevailed over the centuries is the determination on the best method of interpreting a text. This quandary of the best method of translating is an antique 1. Jerome ( 395/2004: 24 ) expresses this quandary therefore: It is hard, when following the lines of another, non to overshoot someplace and backbreaking, when something is good put in another linguistic communication, to continue this same beauty in interlingual rendition if I translate word by word, it sounds absurd ; it out of necessity I alter something in the order or enunciation, I will look to hold abandoned the undertaking of a transcriber. However, Jerome and so many other transcriber of his clip stop up non interpreting word by word. He quotes Cicero as detecting that in his interlingual rendition of Plato s Protagoras and Xenophone s Oeconomicus, that he kept their meanings but with their signifiers their figures, so to talk in words adapted to our parlance ( 395/2004: 23 ) . He adds that except for the instance of Sacred Scriptures, where the really order of the words is a enigma I render non word for word, but sense for sense ( 395/2004: 25 ) so as non to sound absurd in the mark linguistic communication. These bookmans, including others like Nicolas Perrot DAblancourt ( 1640/2004 ) , Martin Luther ( 1530 ) and John Dryden ( 1680/2004 ) , may non be seen as interlingual renditions bookmans per Se since they all had their several careers and interlingual rendition was what they did in the passing. However, their positions and remarks formed the bedrock on which the field of interlingual rendition surveies was to be built. Linguistic-based attacks The statement over word by word or sense for sense interlingual rendition prevailed over the centuries up till the twentieth century when Jakobson ( 1959/2004 ) introduced the term equivalence in the literature and Nida ( 1964/2004 ) expands it by separating between formal and dynamic equality. While formal equality purposes at fiting the message in the receptor linguistic communication every bit closely as possible to the different elements in the beginning linguistic communication, including the signifier and content, dynamic equality aims at complete naturalness of look, and attempts to associate the receptor to manners of behavior relevant within the context of his ain civilization ( Nida 1964/2004: 156 ) . Harmonizing to Nida, the intents of the transcriber to a big extent determine whether the transcriber should take at formal equality or dynamic equality. One observes that these bookmans are concerned with the correspondence between the mark linguistic communication and the beginning linguistic communication and these attacks were therefore jointly called linguistic attacks to interlingual rendition. Harmonizing to Saldanha ( 2009: 148 ) , the term lingual attacks to interlingual rendition surveies is used to mention to theoretical theoretical accounts that represent interlingual rendition and/ or interpretation as a ( chiefly ) lingual procedure and are hence informed chiefly by lingual theory . Translation surveies was subsumed under applied linguistics and therefore studied with methods developed in linguistics ( Schaeffner 2001: 6 ) . Other bookmans that contributed to research in this country are Catford ( 1965 ) and House ( 1977/1981 ) . Translation was seen as a transportation of information from one linguistic communication to another, as an activity that affects merely the two linguistic communications involved. Thus bookma ns were concerned with ordering methods of interpreting from one linguistic communication to the other in order to reproduce in the mark linguistic communication a message that is tantamount to that of the beginning text. One such prescription was Vinay and Dabelnet s ( 1958/2994 ) seven methods or processs for interlingual rendition: adoption, loan translation, actual interlingual rendition, heterotaxy, transition, equality and version. The first three they call direct interlingual renditions as they involve permuting the beginning linguistic communication message component by component, while the last four they call oblique because they involve an upsetting of the syntactic order of the beginning linguistic communication. One major defect of lingual attacks is that they do non take awareness of the part of the context in which an look is used to the apprehension of the whole message or text. Schaeffner ( 2001: 8 9 ) observes that Surveies conducted within a linguistic-based attack to interlingual rendition concentrated on the systematic dealingss between units of the linguistic communication systems, but frequently abstracted from facets of their contextual usage. A chosen TL-form may good be right harmonizing to the regulations of the linguistic communication system, but this does non needfully intend that the text as a whole suitably fulfils its communicative map in the TL state of affairs and civilization. Working on the interlingual rendition of the Bible, Nida s differentiation between formal and dynamic equality introduced facets of sociolinguistics and civilization into interlingual rendition surveies. He says that any treatment of equality, whether formal or dynamic, must see types of relatedness determined by the lingual and cultural distance between the codifications used to convey the message ( 1964/2004: 157 ) . He declares that a natural interlingual rendition or dynamic equality involves two chief countries of version, viz. , grammar and vocabulary ( 2004: 163 ) . However, his theory has been criticised for being restricted in application and range as it appears to be meant chiefly for Bible interlingual renditions and to concentrate on merely lexical and syntactic correspondence. A few old ages subsequently, Koller ( 1979: 215f ) proposes five classification of the construct of equality viz. : textralinguistic facts/state of personal businesss ( denotive equality ) ; sign ifier of verbalization, including intensions, manner and ( connotative equality ) ; text norms and linguistic communication norms ( text-normative equality ) ; TL-text audience ( matter-of-fact equality ) ; and specific aesthetic, formal, characteristic characteristics of text ( formal-aesthetic equality ) ( quoted in Schaeffner 2001: 9 ) This excessively receives a batch of unfavorable judgments which seemingly inform its reappraisal by the writer over the old ages. Pym ( 1997: 1 ) observes that four editions of Koller s book Einfuhrung in dice Ubersetzungswissenschaft ( Introduction to Translation Studies/Science ) has been published as at 1995, with an article summarizing the chief points looking in English in Target. Indeed the construct of equality was ( and still is ) extremely controversial even to this twenty-four hours. Textlinguistic attacks In reaction to the evident instead restricted lingual range of these attacks, some bookmans so argue for a text-linguistic or matter-of-fact attack to interlingual rendition, whereby the whole text is seen as the unit of significance and interlingual rendition, as against the vocabulary and grammar which was the focal point of lingual attacks. Katharina Reiss s ( 1971/2004 ) text-typology is seminal in this regard, being about the first to present into TS a consideration of the communicative intent of interlingual rendition ( Munday 2008: 74 ) . Harmonizing to Reiss, the communicative map of a text in its beginning civilization determines its map in the mark civilization and how it will be translated. She classifies text-type into enlightening ( communicates content ) , expressive ( communicates artistically organised content ) and operative ( communicates content with a persuasive character ) ( Reiss 1971/2004: 171 ) . In her position, a text that is adjudged informative should be translated in such a manner that the same content in the beginning text is transferred into the mark text ; an expressive text should retain the artistic and originative characteristics of the beginning text in the mark text ; while an operative beginning text should inform a mark text with a similar or correspondent consequence on the mark audience. In state of affairss where a text exhibits characteristics of more than one text-type, the transcriber should concern themselves with highlighting the overruling text-type and back-grounding the remainder if the demand so arises. Reiss does a batch to emphasize the importance of text-variety or genre in interlingual rendition surveies. She observes that genre conventions are civilization specific and the transcriber should see the differentiations in genre conventions across civilization so as non to jeopardize the functional equality of the TL text by naively following SL conventions ( 1971/2004: 173 ) . Neubert ( 1985 ) and its sub sequence co-authored with Gregory Shreve ( 1992 ) have done a batch to underscore the importance of genre analysis in interlingual rendition surveies. In the foreword to Translation as Text, they observe the diminution in influence of linguistics in interlingual rendition surveies and the motion towards interdisciplinarity: Translation surveies has abandoned its resolved concern with purely lingual issues. It has been invigorated by new thoughts from other subjects. Translation scholars no longer waver to follow new thoughts from information scientific discipline, cognitive scientific discipline, and psychological science. ( Neubert and Shreve 1992: seven ) Scholars that favour this attack focus a batch on puting up paradigms of genres, or as Corbett ( 2009: 291 ) puts it, these bookmans focused on the descriptions of extremely predictable, ritual, transactional texts, many of which seem commonplace in nature like Swales ( 1990 ) on reissue petitions and Eggins ( 1994 ) on formulas. Therefore bookmans tried to place parallel texts across linguistic communications and civilizations by making a systematic comparing of genre examples in both the beginning civilization and the mark civilization ( Schaeffner 2001: 11 ) . Schaeffner besides notes elsewhere that [ g [ enre conventions are determined by civilization and, therefore, prone to changeless alteration ( 2000: 222 ) . This enables the transcriber to accommodate the text to the conventions of the receptor or mark civilization. Thus bookmans runing within a text-linguistic attack to translation believe that a interlingual rendition goes beyond linguistic communication to cultural con siderations. FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES The 2nd half of the twentieth century witnessed some paradigm displacement in interlingual rendition surveies, particularly with the publication in German of Katharina Reiss and Hans Vermeer s Foundation for a General Theory of Translation and Justa Holz-Manttari s Translatorial Action: Theory and Method, both in 1984. These set the gait for what is subsequently known as functionalist attacks to interlingual rendition, approaches that see interlingual rendition as a communicative action carried out by an expert in intercultural communicating ( the transcriber ) , playing the function of a text manufacturer and aiming at some communicative intent ( Nord 2001: 151 ) . Functionalist attacks by and large believe that the map of a text in the mark civilization determines the method of interlingual rendition. They are said to hold developed in resistance to the equality paradigm of the linguistic-based attacks which see the beginning text as what determines the nature of the mark text. Us ing the communicating strategy of SOURCE-PATH-GOAL, they accentuate the importance of the mark text as the end of the translational procedure. One of the major advocates, Vermeer ( 1987: 29 ) declares that linguistics entirely is non effectual because interlingual rendition itself is non simply nor chiefly a lingual procedure, and that linguistics has non yet formulated the right inquiries to undertake our jobs ( cited in Nord 1997: 10 ) . Quite a good figure of interlingual rendition bookmans subscribe to functionalism like Vermeer ( 1978, 1989, 1996 ; Reiss and Vermeer 1984, 1991 ; Nord 1997, 2005 ; Holz-Manttari 1984, 1993 ; Honig 1997 ; Honig and Kussmaul 1982, 1996 ; among many others. Following are some of the major strands of functionalism. Skopostheorie The most popular among the functionalist attacks, skopos theory was developed in Germany by Hans Vermeer in 1978 in dissatisfaction with the linguistic-based attacks to interlingual rendition. He sees interlingual rendition as an action governed by a skopos from Grecian intending intent or purpose. This intent now determines how the interlingual rendition is done. Vermeer argues that the beginning text is produced for a state of affairs in the beginning civilization which may non be the same in the mark civilization. It so follows that the interlingual rendition should be produced to accommodate the intent for which it is needed in the mark civilization: the beginning text is oriented towards, and is in any instance edge to, the beginning civilization. The mark text is oriented towards the mark civilization, and it is this which finally defines its adequateness ( Vermeer 1989/2004: 229 ) . Reiss and Vermeer jointly published Translatorial Action: Theory and Method in 1984 to give wh at has been described as the general interlingual rendition theory, sufficiently general , and sufficiently complex, to cover a battalion of single instances ( Schaeffner 1998: 236 ) . They see a text as an offer of information and interlingual rendition as an offer of information bing in a peculiar linguistic communication and civilization to members of another civilization in their linguistic communication. They hold that the demands of the mark text receiving systems determine the specification of the skopos and the choice made from information offered in the beginning text ( Schaeffner 1998: 236 ) . Thus interlingual rendition goes beyond lingual considerations to besides embrace cultural issues. The inquiry so arises: Who determines the skopos? Harmonizing to Vermeer ( 1989/2004: 236 ) , the skopos is defined by the committee and if necessary adjusted by the transcriber . Nord ( 1997:30 ) adds that the skopos is embedded in the interlingual rendition brief, which means that the individual originating the interlingual rendition constantly decides what the skopos is. She agrees with Vermeer that the skopos is frequently negotiated between the client and the transcriber. The skopos of a text in the beginning civilization might be the same as the skopos of the interlingual rendition in the mark civilization, but that is merely one of the different intents for which a text might be needed in a different civilization as the intent in the mark civilization might be different. Reiss and Vermeer ( 1984 ) name the state of affairs where the beginning text map is the same as the mark text map functional stability, while for the other state of affairs where both texts have different maps they say the text has undergone a alteration of map. Vermeer besides gives two farther regulations: coherency regulation and fidelity regulation. Coherence regulation stipulates that the mark text must be sufficiently consistent for the mark audience to understand given their assumed background cognition and situational fortunes while the fidelity regulation focuses on the intertextual relationship between the beginning text and the mark text ( Schaeffner 1998: 236 ) . The nature of this intertextual coherency between the beginning text and mark is nevertheless determined by the skopos. The theory of translatorial action This theory, proposed by Holz-Manttari, draws a batch from action theory and communicating theory. An action is by and large seen as making something deliberately, and communicating fundamentally means reassigning information from one entity to another. Holz-Mantarri s theory so sees interlingual rendition as reassigning information embedded in one civilization to receiving systems in another civilization, and the transcriber is the expert saddled with the duty of this information transportation. Using constructs from communicating theory, Holz-Mantarri identifies the participants in the translatorial procedure: the instigator, the individual in demand of the interlingual rendition ; the commissioner, the individual that contacts the transcriber ; the beginning text manufacturer or writer ; the mark text manufacturer, the transcriber or interlingual rendition bureau ; the mark text user, instructors for illustration ; and the mark text receiver, for illustration pupils in a mark user s category. She does a batch to underscore the function played by these participants in the translational procedure. The demand for a interlingual rendition arises in state of affairss where there is information in a peculiar civilization that members of another civilization do non hold entree to as a consequence of the cultural differences among the communities, or as Nord ( 1997: 17 ) puts it, state of affairss where differences in verbal and non-verbal behavior, outlooks, cognition and positions are such that there is non adequate common land for the transmitter and receiving system to pass on efficaciously by themselves. Translation so is a procedure of intercultural communicating aimed at bring forthing a text capable of working suitably in specific state of affairss and contexts of usage ( Schaeffner 1998: 3 ) . And since the focal point is on bring forthing functionally equal texts, the mark text should so conform to the genre conventions of the mark civilization. This makes the transcriber the expert in translatorial action, who determines what is suited for the translatorial text operation and ensures the information is transmitted satisfactorily. One interesting facet of this theory is the debut of new nomenclatures into the literature. For illustration, alternatively of text, Holz-Mantarri prefers Botschaftstrager, message bearer, a construct that broadens the traditional construct of text to include non-verbal facets of communicating thereby doing justness to the complexness of communicative procedures ( Martin de Leon 2008: 7 ) . Other alterations include Botschaftstragerproduktion for text production and translatorisches Handeln for translate or interlingual rendition. The rule of the necessary grade of preciseness This rule was developed by Honig and Kusmaul to supply a more elaborate history of interlingual rendition relevant decision-making procedures as against the framework theory of interlingual rendition ( Honig 1997: 10 ) . One of the results of functionalist attacks is that the transcriber can give more information in the interlingual rendition if the skopos requires that. An case is doing clear in a mark text what is non so clear in the beginning text. However, it is non clear to what extent the transcriber can exert this autonomy. To this terminal, the rule stipulates that what is necessary depends on the map of the interlingual rendition ( Honig 1997: 10 ) . Honig illustrates this in this instead long quotation mark: the term public school implies such a big sum of culture-specific cognition that it is impossible to render its intending completely in a interlingual rendition. Within a functionalist attack, nevertheless, the map of a word in its specific context determines to what degree the cultural significance should be made explicit. In a sentence such as ( my accent ) : ( 2a ) In Parliament he fought for equality, but he sent his boy to Eton. the interlingual rendition will hold to be different from interpreting the indistinguishable term Eton in the sentence: ( 3a ) When his male parent died his female parent could non afford to direct him to Eton any more. The undermentioned interlingual renditions would be sufficiently detailed: ( 2b ) Im Parlament kampfte er fur Chancengleichheit, aber seinen eigenen Sohn schickte Er auf eine der englischen Eliteschulen. ( one of the English elite schools ) ( 3b ) Als sein Vater starb, konnte seine Mutter Es sich nicht mehr leisten, ihn auf eine der teuren Privatschulen zu schicken ( one of the expensive private schools ) . Of class, there is more factual cognition implied in the footings Eton or public school than expressed in the interlingual rendition, but the interlingual rendition references everything that is of import within the context of the sentence, in other words, the interlingual rendition is semantically precise plenty. ( 1997: 11 ) Here the transcriber does non take at an exact or perfect mark text, but a text that is sufficiently good plenty for the state of affairs. The transcriber provides every bit much ( or less ) information as the readers need as determined by the skopos. Christiane Nord Christiane Nord is one of the major advocates of functionalism. She agrees with Vermeer that the state of affairs under which a mark text is produced is different from that of the beginning text in footings of clip, topographic point ( except for coincident interpretation ) , and sometimes medium. Thus the significance of a text is found beyond the lingual codification, in the extratextual state of affairs. In fact, she even stresses that intending reading depends a batch on the personal experience of the text user: A text is made meaningful by its receiving system for its receiving system. Different receiving systems ( or even the same receiving system at different times ) find different significances in the same lingual stuff offered by the text. We might even state that a text is every bit many texts as there are receiving systems of it. ( 2001: 152 ) Nord nevertheless has some reserves for the unrestricted freedom Reiss and Vermeer, and Holz-Manttari have given the transcriber to bring forth a mark text of whatever signifier so long as it conforms to the skopos as directed by the client. To look into this, she introduces the construct of trueness which she defines as the duty transcribers have towards their spouses: transcribers, in their function as go-betweens between two civilizations, have a particular duty with respect to their spouses, i.e. the beginning text writer, the client or commissioner of the interlingual rendition, and the mark text receiving systems, and towards themselves, exactly in those instances where there are differing positions as to what a good interlingual rendition is or should be. ( Nord 2006: 33 ) . Nord therefore contends that the skopos is non the lone finding factor in interlingual rendition, that trueness is necessary. Loyalty commits the transcriber bilaterally to the beginning text and mark text state of affairss: non to distort the beginning text writer s purposes ( Nord 2005:32 ) and carry throughing the outlooks of the mark audience or explicating in a footer or precede how they arrived at a peculiar significance. Loyalty is different from fidelity or equality in that the latter refer to the lingual or stylistic similarity between the beginning and the mark texts, irrespective of the communicative purposes involved while the former refers to an interpersonal relationship between the transcriber and their spouses ( 2001: 185 ) . Christiane Nord besides elaborates on the possible scope of maps a mark text may hold, different from that or those of the beginning text. She first distinguishes between documental interlingual rendition and instrumental interlingual rendition. Documentary interlingual rendition is such that aims at bring forthing in the mark linguistic communication a sort of papers of ( certain facets of ) a communicative interaction in which a source-culture transmitter communicates with a source-culture audience via the beginning text under source-culture conditions ( 1997: 138 ) ; instrumental interlingual rendition, on the other manus, purposes at bring forthing in the mark linguistic communication an instrument for a new communicative interaction between the source-culture transmitter and the target-culture audience. A documental interlingual rendition normally consequences in a mark text with a meta-textual map or secondary degree map harmonizing to House ( 1977 ) . An instrumental interli ngual rendition may hold the same scope of maps as the beginning text, whereby it is said to be equifunctional ; but if there are differences in the maps of both texts, the instance is said to be heterofunctional. Nord besides talks about homologous interlingual rendition, besides called creative heterotaxy ( Bassnet 2002: 24 ) , where the mark text represent the same grade of originality as the original in relation to the several culture-specific principal of texts. One other seminal input of Nord s into functionalism is her call for an luxuriant analysis of the beginning text before interlingual rendition proper. Unlike Vermeer and Holz-Manttari who about make the beginning text so unseeable, Nord instead gives some attending to it since it is the supplier of the offer of information that forms the footing for the offer of information formulated in the mark text. She argues that the pre-translation analysis of the beginning text helps in make up ones minding on whether the interlingual rendition undertaking is executable in the first topographic point, which beginning text units are relevant to a functional interlingual rendition, and which scheme will outdo bring forth a mark text that meets the demands of the brief ( Nord 1997: 62 ) . Nord goes farther to place and categorize the sort of jobs a transcriber might meet matter-of-fact, convention-related, interlingual and text-specific and besides stairss to follow in the translational procedu re. Schaeffner ( 2001 ) has done a critical reappraisal of Nord s predications ( and so other functionalist attacks ) and their pertinence in practical interlingual rendition. CONTROVERSIES SURROUNDING FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES TO TRANSLATION Expectedly, functionalist attacks have received a batch of unfavorable judgment, particularly from bookmans of the linguistic-based attacks, one of which is the definition of interlingual rendition. Critics of skopos theory argue that non all mark texts based on a beginning text can be called interlingual renditions, that skopos theory makes no differentiation between a existent interlingual rendition and version or what Koller ( 1995 ) calls nontranslation. They argue that the supposed deposition of the beginning text and concentrate on the mark text ( Newmark 1991 ; Schreitmuller 1994 ) subverts the intrinsic significance of the interlingual rendition. Pym ( 1997 ) argues in this visible radiation and supports Koller ( 1995 ) in continuing equality and naming on functionalists to separate between interlingual rendition and nontranslation. However, functionalists view interlingual rendition from a broader position, as any translational action where a beginning text is transferred in to a mark civilization and linguistic communication Nord 1997: 141 ) . They see the linguistic-based definition as being restrictive and in demand of enlargement. Linked to this is the supposed deposition of the beginning text and accent on the skopos as the finding factor of how the interlingual rendition is done. It is so argued that functionalism gives transcribers the freedom to bring forth any sort of mark text and name it a interlingual rendition. Pym ( 1991 ) , for case, accuses functionalists of bring forthing mercenary experts able to contend under the flag of any purpose able to pay them ( 1991: 2 ) . Nord responds to this by presenting the construct of trueness, which restricts the autonomy of the transcriber as they are now expected to be loyal to the beginning text writer every bit good as other spouses in the translational procedure. She besides insists on an luxuriant beginning text analysis before interlingual rendition for a better apprehension of both the beginning text and beginning civilization which will so breed some high degree coherency between the beginning text and the mark text. One other contention environing functionalism is the myriad of nomenclatures introduced and used otherwise, particularly those by Holz-Manttarri. Indeed many of these unfavorable judgments still go on to this twenty-four hours. However, despite the assorted contentions environing the development and push of functionalist attacks, their parts to the survey of interlingual rendition are singular. CONTRIBUTIONS OF FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES TO TRANSALTION STUDIES One major part of this attack is that, harmonizing to Nord ( 1997: 29 ) , it addresses the eternal quandary of free V faithful interlingual renditions, dynamic V formal equality, good translators vs slavish transcribers, and so on . Thus a interlingual rendition may be free of faithful or anything between these two extremes depending on its skopos or the intent for which it is needed. The transcriber no longer has to ever travel back to the beginning text to work out translational jobs, instead they base their interlingual rendition on the map of the text in the mark civilization. Functionalist attacks liberate interlingual rendition from theories that impose lingual regulations upon every determination ( Pym 2010: 56 ) . They recognise that the interlingual rendition procedure involves more than linguistic communications involved and requires the consideration of these extra-textual and extra-linguistic factors for its realization. Therefore they introduce the cultural dimension to interlingual rendition surveies and interrupt the unneeded resort to the authority of the beginning text. While linguistics-based attacks may be said to be retrospective in that they look back at the beginning text as the theoretical account for the mark text, functionalist attacks are seen as prospective in that they look frontward to the map of the text in the mark civilization as the major finding factor for how the interlingual rendition will be done. A retrospective interlingual rendition operates a bottom-up procedure, works from beginning linguistic communication elements a nd transportations the text sentence by sentence, or phrase by phrase. But a prospective interlingual rendition operates a top-down procedure, get downing on the matter-of-fact degree by make up ones minding on the intended map of the interlingual rendition and inquiring for specific text-typological conventions, and for addressees background cognition and their communicative demands ( Ouyang 2009: 104 ) . Functionalist attacks are flexible and general plenty to account for a broad scope of translational state of affairss. Talking about the theory of skopos theory for illustration, Schaeffner ( 2001: 15 ) observes that [ T ] his theory is presented as being sufficiently general to cover a battalion of single instances, i.e. to be independent of single linguistic communications, civilizations, capable spheres, text types and genres . Interestingly, the consideration of extra-textual factors in the translational procedure accentuates the multidisciplinary nature of interlingual rendition surveies. The debut of text-typology and considerations of genre-conventions introduces elements of pragmatics, text-ling

Toyota's Business Strategy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Toyota's Business Strategy - Research Paper Example The company has over 371,605 employees’ worldwide working in different positions (Ireland, Hoskisson, and Hitt 57). Toyota has successfully grown into a multinational corporation since they entered into the market. They have expanded into many countries and were rated as the best automobile company in 2008. Toyota operates brands such as Lexus, Hino and Daihatsu alongside other non-automotive companies. The Toyota Company bases its business strategy on five major principles. The first principle is introducing new and unique ideas into the market so as to outdo their competitors by achieving the dreams of their customers. The second principle is that they are always ready to develop, create and improve ideas and services in their existing markets. The third principle is teamwork since they are aware that cooperation fosters better production and nurtures success. Their fourth principle is fulfilling the market needs by producing what the market wants and adjusting their product ion with the market needs and demands. Their last principle is developing one another which imply that their employees get better by learning from each other and frequent training so as to ensure they have the best employees. Toyota has been in the forefront of innovation and was the proud inventors of the hybrid vehicle. The company invests in innovation and appreciates the opinion of all their employees. They have come up with cheaper production methods whereby they produce high quality and economical vehicles at considerably cheap prices. This enables them to have a price competitive advantage since they can respond to demand by altering their prices and still remain profitable. Producing high-quality vehicles has helped them build an irrefutable image in the market and have also gained customer loyalty in most of their customers. Toyota assures their customers that their low prices are due to better production methods and not

Essay on the movie ti kill a mockingbird Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

On the movie ti kill a mockingbird - Essay Example There is no denying the fact that â€Å"Early on in the history of American South, the institution of slavery established race as one of the dominant influences shaping Southern culture (Beck, Frandsen & Randall 121)†, whose diluted remnants can still be traced in the contemporary Southern life. In that context this movie is primarily concerned with the dynamics of the race relations in the South. To a great extent the movie traces the conflict and friction accompanying the change in social perceptions pertaining to the notion of race in the South. The fictional character of Tom in the movie To Kill a Mockingbird emerges as a symbolic representative of the injustices inflicted on a section of the Southern society, a direct outcome of the Southern notions of race. The movie elaborately delineates the race based bifurcation of the Southern society, which happened to be all encompassing, including within its ambit all the salient aspects of the Southern social life, like habitati ons, religion, mannerisms, language, food, politics and sadly justice also. Class is an important concern in this movie as social class has traditionally commanded immense importance in the essentially agrarian Southern culture replete with â€Å"an abundance of myths and stereotypes about the poor and the wealthy (Beck, Frandsen & Randall 46)†. In that sense, this movie allows the audience to glance over a range of class affiliated stereotypes like the conservative Mrs. Dubose, and the Cunninghams and the Ewells belonging to the lower class, from the relatively balanced perspective of Jem and Scout. The movie in a way visually presents the complex interplay between the Southern notions of class and race, with those at the receiving end of the system trying to seek a common space. For instance, when Scout embarrasses the poor Walter Cunningham, she is severely reprimanded by her black cook Calpurnia. However, it does need to be mentioned that when

Orangic Milk or Regular Milk Essay Example for Free

Orangic Milk or Regular Milk Essay Is organic milk really that better for you? That was what I was thinking when we were discussing that in health class. Coach Deyo gave good ideas, but I still had my doubts. Because people have been drinking regular milk a long time and no one has died from it or didn’t get enough nutrients from it. So, why do people say organic milk is better for you. I was looking at a website called Men’s Health. It gives a few ideas about organic milk and regular milk. One thing said on the website made me think, why waste the money on organic milk if it doesn’t give you the effects you desire. â€Å"There are differences between organic and conventional milk production, but they may not have the effects consumers expect, says Thomas Overton, Ph. D. , associate professor of animal science at Cornell University. † After I read this I was thinking maybe it’s all in the consumers mind that organic is better for them. Maybe that’s what the organic milk farms want them to think. The website also states that you get the same stuff from organic milk in regular milk. â€Å"For one thing, it’s not any healthier. â€Å"An eight-ounce serving of regular milk offers the same nine essential nutrients—including calcium, vitamin D, and potassium—as a glass of organic milk,† Mangieri says. † So, people that say they drink organic milk because it’s healthier for you are not correct, it’s basically the same type of milk just the cows are feed differently. This is what I read that gave me that idea that the organic dairy cows are just fed differently than the regular milk cows. â€Å"Are fed only organic grains, free of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides; get at least 30 percent of their feed from pasture; aren’t treated with antibiotics, or with bovine growth hormone to increase milk production. † The website was talking about how organic dairy farms feed and treat their cows. In my opinion, that’s a good thing that they are being fed organic grains and not treated with growth hormones. But, why does it matter if it’s going to be the same kind of nutrients. Also I read in the website that both types of dairy farms have to go through a test for antibiotic residue. â€Å"There’s also no distinction in terms of unwanted ingredients. All organic and conventional milk is tested for antibiotic residue, and any milk that contains it is removed from the food supply. † In conclusion I think it’s all up to the consumer. If the consumer wants healthier milk for him or her, you could decide between both milks. If the consumer wants milk from a cow that’s fed and treated right then they should decide to get organic milk. But for me if I drank milk, I would decide to pick the one that gives you the nutrients you need and not break my wallet.

Canadian Political Structure Essay -- Canada Government

Primus inter pares ? What are the sources and the limits of the power of the Prime Minister? Primus inter pares†¦ Latin phrase meaning 'the first among equals' or 'first among peers'. The title was also used by Caesar Augustus to hide behind the fact that even though the Senate of Rome was officially governing the Roman Republic, he in practice retained his autocratic power like his predecessors had done. Which of these definitions should we take for Prime Minister of Canada? What are the powers of the Prime Minister? What are the limits to this power? We will see that the powers of the Prime Minister come from the constitution, from making nominations, from being able to call elections. We will also look at the powers that reside in the cabinet system. We will then try and look at some of the limits of this power, and describe how some of these limits can actually be cancelled or reversed Constitution When one looks at the Canadian Constitution, there does not seem to be any mention of the prime minister except for section 49 of the 1982 act which talks about a Constitutional conference that the Prime Minister will need to have with the premiers of the provinces to discuss the changes to the constitution. (White 1998, p.313) But if one looks more closely at the Act of 1867, or if one reads between the lines, one can see in the first paragraphs that it mentions â€Å"a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom† (White 1998, p.277) This, along with sections 11 to 14 indirectly means that Canada will have a Westminster Parliamentary System and that Canada will adopt a system with a Prime Minister and a Cabinet and a Privy Council. Britain already had many years of experience about what the prime minister’s d... ...e, Jean Chrà ©tien. Montreal: Lanctot Editeur, 2002. Levine, Allan Gerald. Scrum wars: the prime ministers and the media. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1993. Massicotte, Louis. "L’annonce de Jean Chrà ©tien - La dà ©mission forcà ©e d’un premier ministre, les prà ©cà ©dents." le devoir, 7 avril 2010. Savoie, Donald. Governing from the center. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999. —. Power: Where is it ? Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010. Simpson, Jeffrey. The Friendly Dictatorship. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2001. Spector, Norman. "prorogation jean chretien did it too." The Globe and Mail, january 9, 2010. Thomas, Paul G. "Governing from the center: Reconceptualizing the role of the PM and the Cabinet." Policy Options, dec 2003-jan 2004: 79-85. White, Walter. Introduction to Canadian Politics and Government 7th edition. Toronto: Harcourt Brace, 1998.

Free Speech in Schools Essay

The right to publish material on one’s My Space internet page is a constitutional right contained in the Bill of Rights. The right to free speech is contained within the first Amendment to the US Constitution one of the main Amendments contained in the Bill of Rights. The first Amendment provides as follows: ‘Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. Freedom of speech is married to freedom of expression and recognizes the right to publicly express one’s thoughts, ideas and opinions without fear of censorship and/or punishment. The right to free speech however is not all encompassing and does have its restrictions such as obscenity and defamation within the public broadcast arena. An early test for restrictions on free speech was formulated in the case of Schenck v. United States. Although the circumstances of the right to freedom of speech arose during World War 1, the formulated test is applicable in an appropriate case. In the Schenck case, the appellant mailed flyers out to draftees urging that they ‘do not submit to intimidation’. The missive was taken to mean a direct attempt by Schenck to discourage and obstruct recruitment. Sir Oliver Wendall Holmes, in delivering the unanimous decision of the US Supreme Court held that ‘the question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent. It is against this background that freedom of speech in relation to restrictions on a student’s display of drug or gang related material on his or her My Space website. Generally, a restriction of a student’s right to publish material such as the school’s policy against publishing drug or gang related material on his or her My Space website is a violation of their First Amendment free speech rights. However, as will be discussed, private schools have no legal obligation to comply with the First Amendment and are at liberty to implement policies such as the ‘no drug, no gang related’ online publications by the student body. Challenging Free Speech Restrictions/Plan Ordinarily, a challenge to an infringement of constitutional rights can be pursued through the Federal Court system which has jurisdiction over all matters relating to the constitution. For reasons that will be discussed later, this might not be the appropriate avenue to pursue in respect of private schools since they do not come under the Federal Government and are not bound as the Government is in respect of preserving the integrity of the US Constitution. Students wishing to challenge the school’s ‘no drugs, no gang’ publications may pursue a number of alternative courses of action. They can secure the assistance of the media and various Civil Rights groups such as the American Civil Liberties Union. The general idea is to promote the contention that a school as a place for learning and maturity has a duty to teach students to respect the provisions of the US Constitution and any policy within a school system that contravenes a student’s constitutional rights contradicts the school’s duty. However, this can be countered by the school arguing that it has a right to promote a certain image of its moral code and that a student’s publication of what amounts to base principles is inconsistent with the school’s image Certainly students can make a case challenging the school’s hard stance against online publications containing drug and gang-related material. However, whether or not they will be successful is another matter entirely. It is therefore important to examine what constitutes infringement of freedom of speech with a view to identifying which school policies and practices constitute a violation of the First Amendment before pursuing media attention. At the end of the day, a private school has a right to set policies and principles for its students and can enforce them. The question of fairness within the private school system is not a matter for the courts as will be borne out in the following passages. Freedom of Speech in High Schools Whether or not the proposed restrictions on My Space websites constitutes a violation of the student’s right to free speech has already been indirectly determined by the Federal Courts. The US Federal Court system has decided on issues of freedom of speech within the public school system. There have been three cases of significance to the first amendment and its application to public schools. They are Tinker v Des Moines Independent Community School District, Bethel School District No. 403 v. Fraser, and Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier. In Tinker v Des Moines Independent Community School District 393 U. S. 503, 89 S. Ct. 733 (1969) determined the issue of freedom of expression which is closely tied in with the principle of free speech. In this case, students in an expression of disenchantment with the Vietnamese war wore certain armbands to school. When they were asked to remove the armbands and refused to do so they were suspended. They were not permitted to return to school unless and until they removed their armbands. The students refused to subscribe to the demands and as a result were suspended for an indefinite period. In an action brought by some of the students involved, the court of first instance ruled in favor of the school’s authorities. On appeal to the Eight Circuit Court of Appeal the lower court’s ruling was affirmed. The students appealed to the US Supreme Court which held that ‘it can hardly be argued that either students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate. ’ Moreover, the US Supreme Court added that ‘In our system, state-operated chools may not be enclaves of totalitarianism. School officials do not possess absolute authority over their students. Students in school as well as out of school are . persons under our Constitution. They possess fundamental rights which the State must respect, just as they themselves must respect their obligations to the State’. Be that as it may, the US Supreme Court set boundaries which have subsequently been upheld. The US Supreme Court set forth guidelines pertaining to a student’s right to freedom of speech in the following terms:- ‘If he does so without . aterially and substantially interfer[ing] with the requirements of appropriate discipline in the operation of the school and without colliding with the rights of others. . . . [C]onduct by the student, in class or out of it, which for any reason–whether it stems from time, place, or type of behavior– materially disrupts classwork or involves substantial disorder or invasion of the rights of others is, of course, not immunized by the constitutional guarantee of freedom of speech. ’ The US Supreme Court therefore held that the conduct of the students involved was proper in all the circumstances. The court would only recognize and indorse restrictions on freedom of speech when the conduct was ‘potentially disruptive†¦ by those participating in it. ’ In Bethel v. Fraser however, the US Supreme Court held that rules and regulations prohibiting the use of obscene language would not prohibit a student’s First Amendment right to free speech. The US Supreme Court ruled that ‘the schools, as instruments of the state, may determine that the essential lessons of civil, mature conduct cannot be conveyed in a school that tolerates lewd, indecent, or offensive speech and conduct such as that indulged in by this confused boy . . . A high school assembly or classroom is no place for a sexually explicit monologue directed towards an unsuspecting audience of teenage students. Accordingly, it was perfectly appropriate for the school to disassociate itself to make the point to the pupils that vulgar speech and lewd conduct is wholly inconsistent with the fundamental values of public school education. ’ In Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier 484 U. S. 260, 108 S. Ct. 62 (1988) the US Supreme Court ruled that a school was at liberty to edit the content of a student’s speech appearing in a school sponsored publication, to wit; a newspaper. In distinguishing this case from the Tinker decision, the US Supreme Court explained that the Tinker case was decided on the propriety of muting a student in his freedom of expression so to speak. Whereas, in the Hazelwood case, the Court was dealing with a school-sponsored newspaper which presupposes that it is published with the school’s approval. The court explained its position as follows:- ‘[T]he standard articulated in Tinker for determining when a school may punish student expression need not also be the standard for determining when a school may refuse to lend its name and resources to the dissemination of student expression. Instead, we hold that educators do not offend the First Amendment by exercising editorial control over the style and content of student speech in school-sponsored expressive activities so long as their actions are reasonably related to legitimate pedagogical concerns. In making a decision in Poling v. Murphy 872 F. 2d 757 (6th Cir. 1989) the 6th Circuit Court of Appeal reconciled the rationale behind the three US Supreme Court decisions cited above. In this case, Poling, a student at Unicoi County High School in Tennessee delivered a campaign speech in support of his attempt to be elected president of the school’s student council. The speech was given at the school’s assembly at which student attendance was mandatory unless an excused absence was previously obtained. Prior to delivering the speech, Poling was required to submit the speech to faculty members for approval. The faculty members reviewing the speech said that they would approve the speech provided Poling removed a sentence which referred to the school’s ‘iron grip. ’ Poling did not do as advised and in fact he revised the sentence in question in such a way that he added to it making comments in reference to an assistant principal that was described by the principal as ‘inappropriate, disruptive of school discipline, and in bad taste. As a result the school removed Poling from the electorate slate of candidates and he took the matter to court. The court at first instance ruled in favor of the school district and Poling appealed to the 6th Circuit Court of Appeal. The appellate court in referring to ruling in Tinker’s case said that ‘tt is true, to be sure, that students do not . shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate,. and . [s]chool officials do not possess absolute authority over their students.. . . It also remains true, however, that the Federal Constitution does not compel . teachers, parents, and elected school officials to surrender control of the American public school system to public school students.. . . . Limitations on speech that would be unconstitutional outside the schoolhouse are not necessarily unconstitutional within it. ’ The 6th Circuit Appeals Court went on to state that had Poling been permitted to make his speech in the manner that he would have liked to it would have given rise to ‘legitimate pedagogical concerns. ecause . [t]he art of stating one’s views without indulging in personalities and without unnecessarily hurting the feelings of others surely has a legitimate place in any high school curriculum. . . ’ The general position here is that although the First Amendment is directly applicable in the public school system, the Federal Court System does permit public schools to restrict free speech among the student body when free speech threatens to undermine disciplinary and educational principles. Therefore private to whom the First Amendment do not apply will have even more leeway in restricting a student’s online publications. A Student’s First Amendment Right to Free Speech and Online Publications Generally speaking a student’s off campus conduct is not a matter for school officials provided it does not fail the Tinker ‘material disruption’ test. The publication must also be able to stand up to the Hazelwood test which will permit censorship if the material appears on a school sponsored website. However, in a private boarding school, students are rarely ‘off campus’ and drawing the line can be difficult. As long as the student is in the care of the school he is subject to the school’s regulations. In American Public School Law by Alexander and Alexander reference is made to the case of Beussink v. Woodland R-IV School district. In this case, Beussink, a student published a personal webpage on his own computer where he referred to the school’s authorities in vulgar terms. The webpage was somehow brought to the attention of the school’s authorities and Beussink was subsequently suspended. He challenged his suspension via the US District Court. It was held that the suspension was unconstitutional and contravened the student’s right to free speech. The presiding judge went on to say that the high school’s authorities failed to demonstrate that the suspension ‘was caused by something more than a mere desire to avoid the discomfort and unpleasantness that always accompany an unpopular viewpoint. ’ It has been held that off-campus communications via the internet that constituted a true threat can be disciplined by the school district. However, in order for the ‘true threat’ to come under the school’s jurisdiction it must have a nexus with the school itself. When an off campus communication does not contain a threat but nevertheless has a nexus with the school, whether or not the school can restrict that communication will have to examined in the context of the Tinker decision namely the communication will have to be ‘materially and substantially interferes with the requirements of appropriate discipline in the operation of the school. ’

To What Extent Do Functionalist Writings Accurately Reflect the Role of the Family in Modern Societies?

Functionalist writings go into much depth in regard to the state and roles of the family in modern, post industrial revolution, society. How accurately the interpretation and observations that are made by the Functionalist view represent the state of the family is, however, a contentious point. Functionalists see the family as the key place where primary socialisation of the young, next generation of society, takes place. The functionalist view of the family is that the family is the corner stone of the whole of society; indeed, the writings of key functionalists, such as Murdock and Parsons describe the family as having four basic functions – sexual, reproductive, economic and educational. All of these functions can be seen in the model modern family – it is, in effect, somewhat of an idealistic view of the way in which family within society behaves. This is one way in which the functionalist perspective is challenged. When looking at modern society and the role family has within it, the functionalist perspective fails to identify that, in some cases, this family model does not exist. Both Murdock and Parsons observations of the family have failed to identify with any other form or institution that may be in place to emulate, and that can take the role of, the family. Indeed, as Morgan notes in his criticism of Murdock’s view on the family, Murdock does not answer ‘to what extent these basic functions are inevitably linked with the institution of the nuclear family’ (Morgan, 1975). By doing this, both Murdock and Parsons fail to depict the form that alternatives to the family may take, and thus cannot reflect the modern role of the family in society today accurately. Another criticism of the functionalist representation of the family is that it does not take into account the effect that different social classes and religious views have on the form of the modern family. Clearly, modern society has a multi-religious, multi-class organisation, and this affects the way in which different families are organised. If the functionalist view does not take this into account when attempting to reflect modern society, and for this reason may be said to not accurately represent the state of the modern society. The view that the family benefits both its members and society as a whole in modern times, as functionalists present, has come under strong attack itself. Some cases show that, far from being a positive institution to society, family can in fact be a cause of friction and unrest that leads to contamination of wider society. R. D. Laing notes how the family is a ‘nexus’, and that ‘the highest concern of the nexus is reciprocal concern. Each partner is concerned about what the other thinks, feels, does’ (Laing, 1962). It is for this reason that, Laing argues, the family is a source of social unease. This view is in direct opposition to the functionalistic view that the family has only positive attributes. The Functionalistic perspective also stands at a direct oppositio n to some other sociological perspectives, and this may have an affect on how accurate the functionalist view of the family is seen. The Marxist perspective, for example, takes the family as a negative institution as a whole, and believes that, although the observations of some functionalistic writings are correct in terms of how the family is structured, it is not a wholly negative institution for society. This is, however, because of the direct opposition to the basis of the functionalist paradigm on a greater scale. Marxist writers believe that the family is a breeding ground for the reproduction of a capitalist ideology, and that this, for society, is negative. Although the contrast of other sociological paradigms does not prove nor disprove the validity of the functionalist reflection of the family within modern society, it does give people an idea, when trying to decide how accurate the functionalist perspective is, of other stances that may be as, or a more, accurate description of modern family and its relationship to the rest of society. Therefore it is an important aspect of looking into the accuracy of any different perspective, to also hold it in comparison with other recognised views. Although on the surface the functionalist view of the family appears to be an accurate description of modern family arrangement, it can be faulted at many points. However, this is not to say that the perspective is totally worthless of being granted some identity within the whole of the sociological family situation. The functionalist perspective gives a good insight into the way in which a family is organised in, and, supposedly supports, a capitalist society – the main framework of post industrial revolution western society. All sociological views have flaws that mean they cannot be fully accurate in description of any situation, and everyone has their own objective view of each of the sociological paradigms, so it is not possible to say, definitively, if one or another accurately depicts a situation or not. It must be left to an informed individual to make up his or her own mind on the subject.